“‘Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength and with all your mind’; and, ‘Love your neighbour as yourself’” (Luke 10:27 NIV). In first-century Israel, this slice of Law aptly summed up the raison d’être of God’s temple. Happenings at Yahweh’s house were designed to sustain relationship between God and his people, and between people and their neighbours.
Both Israelite and foreigner could meet here with God, show their love for him, and perpetuate relationship with him through prayer, worship, and sacrifice. Furthermore, as God’s followers gathered in the temple for worship and fellowship, they maintained ties with one another. The whole temple operation was centred on relationship. When Jesus visited Herod’s temple and saw this purpose being neglected, he assembled a whip, and enacted one of the most dramatic episodes of his ministry (more on that later!).
A model of the first-century temple in Jerusalem
The Temple's Functions
God's Dwelling Place
As per its predecessors – the tabernacle of Moses and the temple of Solomon – Jerusalem’s second temple was designed as a divine ‘house’ and dwelling place (Ezra 6:16; John 2:16; cf. Exod 40:34-35; 1 Kgs 8:11-13). This was its core function.
God wanted to dwell among his people; that was his expressed purpose for the tabernacle, and hence also for the temple at Jerusalem (Exod 25:8; Deut 16:11; 1 Chron 17:4; cf. Hag 2:7). It was his chosen dwelling place on earth, where his glory and presence rested in the midst of his people. Various temple operations were required, however, in order for such intimate relationship between God and his people to be maintained.
A Place of Sacrifice
Arguably the most prominent of temple operations was sacrifice. The sheer volume of daily sacrifices at Herod’s temple meant that its “altar of sacrifice… was continuously in use” (Hanson and Oakman, p. 134). As per Mosaic Law, God’s people could only offer sacrifice at the temple in Jerusalem (Deut 12:13-14), a fact reiterated by first-century Jew, Philo of Alexandria, in his writing of Special Laws. Therefore, Jews such as Philo travelled from various parts of the Roman Empire to Jerusalem – particularly during festivals – in order to offer sacrifice and worship God.
A variety of different sacrifices were mandated by Mosaic Law, to be paid for by God’s people and carried out by temple priests. These included a daily thanksgiving sacrifice of “two lambs, one at the dawn of day, and the other in the evening”, along with additional sacrifices on the Sabbath (see Philo, Special Laws 1.169), a plethora of sacrifices and accompanying rituals at festival times and on the Day of Atonement, and the regular stream of people’s “obligatory sin and purification offerings and… freewill offerings” (Hanson and Oakman, p. 134). Sanctioned sacrificial offerings ranged from unblemished living creatures (turtledoves, pigeons, sheep, goats and cattle), to food products (such as oil, grain, and wine).
Some sacrifices were “an atonement for sin or guilt,” while others “were for worship and communion with God, for thanksgiving and celebration” (Reid, p. 1038). In the final event, however, all sacrifices were performed to honour God and sustain right relationship with him, both individually and as a people/nation. For this reason, priests viewed sacrifices as crucial. Josephus wrote that during Pompey’s siege of Jerusalem (63 BC), priests continued offering sacrifices even while Roman soldiers massacred them in the temple complex (see Josephus, Ant. 14.68). According to Josephus, the priests thought “it better to suffer whatever came upon them, at their very altars, than to omit anything that their laws required of them" (Josephus, Ant. 14.67).
Sacrifice not only atoned for sin, but was also “the central act of worship” (Reid, p. 1046). When performed out of genuine desire to please God, sacrifice helped maintain the relationship between God and people (cf. Amos 5:21-27; Isa 1:11-17).
A Place of Praise and Teaching
This relationship was also sustained through other acts of worship in the temple, such as singing praise to God. The Mishnah records that musical instruments were employed in worship – including “lyres, lutes and cymbals” – and that “Levites used to chant psalms” (mMiddot 2.5-6; see also Josephus, Ant. 20.216-8. Mishnah Middot was codified sometime after 200 AD; however, it is thought to incorporate elements of eyewitness memory).
Furthermore, copious religious teaching and discussion took place in the temple courts (Luke 2:46; 20; John 7:14; 8:1-11), which arguably was another aspect of worship. It was pleasing to God when his people fixed their eyes on him, and rejoiced before him in his house (Deut 12:14).
A House of Prayer
Human-divine relationship was further maintained through the temple’s role as a place of prayer (Luke 1:10; 2:37; 19:46). With the temple viewed as “the threshold to God’s throne in heaven” (cf. Isa 6:1) and the centre of his earthly presence, it was perceived as the ideal place to pray (Chilton, p. 376).
In this capacity, the first-century temple complex was available both to Jews and God-seeking foreigners; all were welcome to come and pray to Yahweh (Mark 11:17; cf. 1 Kgs 8:41-43). Herod’s Temple Mount was, however, divided into a series of courts which filtered visitors, limiting how close they could come to the holy of holies. Non-Jews were restricted to the outer court: the so-called ‘Court of Gentiles’. Ritually clean Jewish women could progress closer towards the temple proper, as far as the Court of Women, while ritually clean Jewish men could advance still further to the Court of Israel. From this inner court, one could observe the priestly proceedings in the neighbouring Court of Priests, which lay in front of the temple building and contained the altar.
Therefore, while the temple complex was open to all God-seekers wishing to pray and worship, there were certain (human-imposed) access restrictions regarding gender and race.
A Place of Pilgrimage
Associated with the temple’s role as “a house of prayer for all nations” (Mark 11:17), it was the focal point for three major pilgrimage festivals (which served to strengthen one’s relationship with God and with fellow people). As mandated in Deut 16:1-17, Jews were expected to worship God together at the temple during Passover, the Feast of Weeks (Pentecost), and the Festival of Booths (Tabernacles).
Jerusalem’s population swelled during these festivals, as Jews and foreigners from around the Mediterranean and Near East descended on the temple (cf. John 12:12, 20; Mark 15:21). One first-century Passover recorded by Josephus featured 565,000 sacrifices, by which he estimated that 2,700,200 Jews took part (see Josephus, War. 6.424-5). Even if Josephus’ numbers are inflated to impress his Roman audience, it is likely that Jerusalem’s population at least tripled during Passover (Charlesworth, p. 20).
The gospels show Jesus, as a faithful Jew, visiting Jerusalem and its Temple for multiple festivals. These included Passover (John 2:13; 12:12; Mark 14:16), Tabernacles (John 7:10), Dedication (John 10:22), and possibly other festivals (John 5:1). Jesus, in fact, exceeded what was demanded of Galilean Jews of his time. The Jews of Galilee, along with those living a long way from God's Temple, were only expected to make one pilgrimage annually.
Such pilgrimages were, according to Josephus, opportunities to “give thanks to God for his former benefits… entreat him for those they shall want hereafter; and [as Jews]… maintain a friendly correspondence with one another by such meetings and feastings together” (Josephus, Ant. 4.203). Philo likewise noted that such festivals encouraged Jewish unity (Philo, Special Laws 1.70). Festivals were means of fostering positive relations amongst the Jews as God’s people, as they worshipped him together and conversed with one another.
A Storehouse
Clearly the temple’s core functions centred on relationship, but as a matter of necessity it also operated as a storehouse. Various “gifts dedicated to God” (Luke 21:5) in honour of him were stored at the temple, including first fruits from across the land, along with operational items such as wood for the altar, unblemished animals for sacrifice, and incense.
Furthermore, a significant volume of money was stored in the temple treasury, from donations, tithes and taxes (cf. Luke 21:1; John 8:20). One of the major taxes, referenced in the New Testament, was a half-shekel or “two-drachma temple tax” (Matt 17:24; cf. Exod 30:13). Every Jewish man was obligated to pay this tax annually, towards the temple’s upkeep. Thus the temple’s financial resources were significant. During his governorship of Judea, Pontius Pilate even funded construction of an aqueduct from the temple treasury (the temple was ultimately controlled by government; high priests, for example, were appointed by the Romans). The temple was a major storehouse, and Pilate recognised it as such.
A Marketplace...
Another necessary element in the temple’s operation was a money-changing service, along with a marketplace for buying unblemished sacrifices (John 2:14). With pilgrims coming from a variety of places across the Roman Empire and beyond (Acts 8:27), money-changers were required to convert the various coins and currencies into temple-approved “Tyrian coinage.” This Tyrian coinage was used to pay the half-shekel temple tax, which was due around the time of Passover.
Furthermore, pilgrims needed to buy animals approved for sacrifice to guarantee that their sacrifices would be accepted. Therefore, marketplace and money-changing services were important to the continued running of the temple. Early in the first-century, sacrificial animals were likely sold up on the Mount of Olives, opposite the Temple Mount. However, by the time of Jesus’ ministry, these services were provided in the temple complex itself, in the Court of Gentiles, setting the stage for Jesus’ dramatic action in the temple.
Jesus Wreaking Havoc
In John 2:13-22 and Mark 11:15-18, it is recorded that Jesus entered the temple around the time of Passover, one of the busiest pilgrimage festivals. This was when the temple tax was being collected, and the huge Passover crowds would have necessitated an extensive, bustling money exchange and marketplace. Observing this lively scene upon entering the Court of Gentiles, Jesus made himself “a whip out of cords” (John 2:15), and went on to disrupt the proceedings.
Jesus overturned the tables of the money changers, and drove the animals, buyers and sellers out of the temple courts. Jesus told the dove-sellers, “Get these out of here! Stop turning my Father’s house into a market!” (John 2:16), and commented to the crowds, “Is it not written: ‘My house will be called a house of prayer for all nations’? But you have made it ‘a den of robbers.’” (Mark 11:17). What prompted Jesus’ astonishing action is debated by scholars.
Some scholars, including Craig A. Evans, hold that Jesus’ action was designed as a ‘cleansing’ of the temple: an attempt to restore the temple to its proper usage. From Jesus’ perspective, the temple was meant to be a ‘house of prayer’ – a place to encounter and build relationship with God – not a (likely corrupt) marketplace. Though market and money-changing services were important to the temple’s operation, these services did not need to be in the temple complex itself; they could just as well be on the Mount of Olives.
Furthermore, converting the Court of Gentiles “from a quiet place of prayer for all people to a chaotic and raucous animal market” was hardly showing love to Gentile God-fearers, who were restricted to this court (Hays, p. 155). If anything, this could have strained the relationship between Jew and Gentile, defying the temple’s relationship-building purpose. Therefore, as per the ‘cleansing’ explanation of Jesus’ action, he was indignant at “the activities going on within the temple precincts” (Evans, p. 243).
Another view however, advanced by N. T. Wright, is that Jesus’ action was an “acted parable,” illustrating God’s coming judgement on the temple (Wright, Victory, p. 416). In suspending the buying and selling of sacrifices, Jesus “was effectively stopping the sacrificial system itself, for a brief but symbolic moment” (Wright, Simply Jesus, p. 113). Soon, the sacrificial system would be indefinitely halted. This understanding of the incident has added credibility because, in later calling the temple ‘a den of robbers,’ Jesus was quoting from Jeremiah 7, a passage warning of the first temple’s coming destruction. Therefore, as in the fig tree incident which bookends (and therefore interprets) Mark’s temple action account, the temple would be destroyed by divine decree (cf. Mark 13:1-2; Luke 19:41-44).
These explanations each hold logic. The best explanation of Jesus’ action, however, may encompass both ‘cleansing’ and ‘enacted parable’ elements. Jesus was clearly upset at the temple’s misuse (John 2:16; Mark 11:17). He acted to restore its proper function as a house of prayer – albeit temporarily – for Gentiles as well as Jews. However, Jesus was also aware that Jerusalem and its temple were under judgement, soon to be destroyed. It is logical that Jesus would symbolically demonstrate this, similar to Jeremiah’s pot-smashing (Jer 19:10). After all, the temple’s functions were shortly to be superseded anyhow.
Sacrifice at the temple, for example, was designed as a means of sustaining relationship between God and his people. However, Jesus was to be the ultimate atoning sacrifice, hence the definitive means of sustaining this relationship (1 John 4:10). Jesus would also function as High Priest between God and people (Heb 2:17), hence becoming the avenue of effective prayer (John 16:23). Furthermore, through the indwelling Holy Spirit, his followers would become God’s temple (2 Cor 6:16; John 14:23), and he would help them to love each other (2 Tim 1:7). Herod’s temple was no longer needed as a relationship-sustaining institution.
In summary, the temple’s core role was centred on relationship. At its best, it served to maintain positive relationship between God and people – via prayer, worship and sacrifice – while also encouraging connection and unity amongst God’s people (both Jews and Yahweh-seeking foreigners). When Jesus entered the temple, he saw this purpose being neglected. A place of prayer – the only space available to Gentiles – had been transformed into a noisy market. Jesus responded dramatically to this injustice, while illustrating coming judgement against the soon-to-be-supplanted temple.
References
Charlesworth, James H. “Introduction: Devotion to and Worship in Jerusalem’s Temple.” Pages 13-30 in Jesus and Temple: Textual and Archaeological Explorations. Edited by James H. Charlesworth. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2014.
Chilton, B. D. “Festivals and Holy Days: Jewish,” in Dictionary of New Testament Background. Edited by Craig A. Evans and Stanley E. Porter. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2000, 371-378.
Chilton, B., P. W. Comfort and M. O. Wise. “Temple, Jewish,” in Dictionary of New Testament Background. Edited by Craig A. Evans and Stanley E. Porter. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2000, 1167-1183.
Evans, Craig A. “Jesus’ Action in the Temple: Cleansing or Portent of Destruction?” The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 51/2 (1989): 237-270.
France, R. T. The Gospel of Mark: A Commentary on the Greek Text. The New International Greek Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2002.
Hanson, K. C. and Douglas E. Oakman. Palestine in the Time of Jesus: Social Structures and Social Conflicts. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2008.
Hauser, Alan J. and Earl Kellett. “Temple, Herod’s,” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary. Edited by John D. Barry. Bellingham: Lexham Press, 2016.
Hays, J. Daniel. The Temple and the Tabernacle. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2016.
Josephus, Flavius. The Works of Josephus: New Updated Version. Translated by William Whiston. Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.
Keener, Craig S. “One New Temple in Christ (Ephesians 2:11-22; Acts 21:27-29; Mark 11:17; John 4:20-24).” Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies 12/1 (2009): 75-92.
Keener, Craig S. The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2014.
Morris, Leon. Luke: An Introduction and Commentary. Tyndale New Testament Commentary. Nottingham: Inter-Varsity Press, 1988.
Philo. The Works of Philo: New Updated Version. Translated by C. D. Yonge. Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 1993.
Reid, D. G. “Sacrifice and Temple Service,” in Dictionary of New Testament Background. Edited by Craig A. Evans and Stanley E. Porter. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2000, 1036-1050.
[Various authors]. “Kadshim II: Middot.” Pages 193-225 in The Mishnah: A New Integrated Translation and Commentary. Translated by Yoseph Milstein. Brooklyn: Machon Yisrael Trust, 2008. Online: http://emishnah.com/Middot.html (accessed 4 February, 2020).
Wright, N. T. Jesus and the Victory of God. Christian Origins and the Question of God. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996.
Wright, N. T. Simply Jesus. London: SPCK, 2011. E-book.